Fave Ford Case Study Analysis

External logistic suppliers are used to manage inbound supply chain. Customers are encouraged to use computers to balance supply and demand. Both companies are focused on strategic partnership with Its suppliers. There might be some escalates between Dell and Ford there are some difference In the operation of the companies. B) Dell forecast its demand with short term forecast and any change in instantly shared within the company and its suppliers. Ford relies on long term forecasting. C) Ford supply chain is more complex then dell.Following are the alternatives and options ford can apply Alternative 1 Design a mixture of online and offline operations and form procedures to enable customization and ordering by customers over the internet but maintain physical dealerships as well. Advantages: a) Customization to customers, start a supply chain vertical integration business model. B) Open new market segment and attract clients who like online shopping. C) Reduction in overhead and inven tory carrying costs. D) Direct control on customer service experience.Disadvantages: a) Costly, time consuming that requires internal and external changes which are not easy to handle and integrate with other operations. B) Independent dealers will complain due to internal competition. ) Suppliers' inability to keep up to speed with Fords modern IT technology. Alternative 2 Create a virtually integrated supply chain based on Dell's model. Ford and all its suppliers would share information between their systems and the Internet to coordinate the flow of materials and production. All customer orders would be taken Page 2 either via Ford's web site or by phone and then build.A pull system would be implemented completely. A) Customization to clients, start of vertical integration in the supply chain. B) Customers' needs are met faster at higher profits due the elimination of reseller's ark-ups. C) Directly control customer service. D) Minimal inventory carrying costs and higher order le ad time. E) The ability to forecast demand is significantly better. F) Improved relationships with both customers and suppliers. Disadvantages: a) Ford's traditional processes and production methods would have to be changed to take advantage of this new form of supply-chain management.Since it is a Very costly and time consuming activity, the difference in the two industries makes it a risky option. C) Change management h as to take off etc w hi chi I s costs y and emotional y sensitive. Recommendation and Implementation: Keeping the existing supply chain would continue to deliver the same dismal results and declining profits for the company. After careful examination and review of the alternatives, we came to conclude that the long term implication of the second alternative is the company going out of business, which eliminates option 2.This option seems illogical when we take into account the fact that Ford is an automobile manufacturing company and Dell assembles customized compu ters for its customers via the internet, eliminating dealerships all across and relying only on their website or its sales will put it at a great disadvantage with competitors. So we would recommend Ford to extend its Virtual-business strategy by partially implementing the Dell's model of supply chain (Alternative 1).The part of the Dell's model which does not fit with Ford need to be discarded. The dealers would still play a role in the distribution since the buying experience of a car from a dealer cannot be substituted by something virtual like a ad model on a computer or images and description online. Implementation In order for Ford to implement option 1, their IT systems should be centralized and hared with suppliers since its Tier 2 and Tier 3 suppliers might not be able to update their IT infrastructure as often as Ford.Suppliers can have access to central design database while Ford controls the access and functionality as per Management Information System-Ford Case Study An alysis Page 3 the operational requirements. The whole coordinated system would ensure a smooth flow of materials and reduced bottlenecks and enhance the efficiency of the supply chain giving a competitive edge to Ford. And lastly, we feel that dealerships can play a more involved role in forecasting customer demand and Ford should explore the option of outsourcing it to a firm which specializes in forecasting demand and can work with each dealer or network of dealers.Monitoring and Control In order for the new system to function appropriately as intended, Ford must perform the following functions: 1 . Appoint an IT specialist as a liaison to coordinate all IT activities with all suppliers in order to insure a smooth flow of information among the supply chain partners and immediately resolve issues as they arise. 2. Moon tort customers' only I nee orders by revive ewe Eng all order I dead times. The it me f mom the customer order initiation to delivery must not exceed a standard peri od of 3.Initiate an online customer satisfaction program in which customers will evaluate and rate their customer experience with Ford. 4. After every 6-8 month, review the performance and make recommendations on improvements to the appropriate authority. 5. Annual executive meetings should be held to review the progress of the business model. As well, review the shareholder value to check whether it's increasing or decreasing. Conclusion: Dell has focused on entrepreneurial and flexible approach; any chance can be embedded instantly across the organization.Ford is much bigger organization as compared to dell and has developed its operation capabilities over the period of time. Virtual integration should be implemented by ford more efficiently. It will help ford to be more efficient in term of production and quick to respond for any change in the real time. By virtual integration ford can look forward for more profitability as their overhead and inventory carrying cost will decrease . Furthermore, the over all success of this business model will depend mainly on the performance of their shareholder value. Page 4

Comm essay

The council members consist of Mayor Adam Sanchez, Mayor Pro Tem Russell Beets and council members, Joe McKee, Jan Rye, and Scott Mats. Eric Johnson s a consultant with Revenue Cost Specialist; he discusses his company and matches costs with revenue. Within twenty-five years he's worked in over two hundred agencies and five different states. It started with two city managers after the passage of proposition 4 and 13, in which they saw the need for cities to be able to match up the cost with their revenues.Proposition 13 limits what can be done with taxes, compared to Proposition 4, which allows fees. â€Å"You are not going to stay in business very long if you don't know what revenues you are bringing in verses what cost you are bringing' said Johnson ruing his brief presentation. In his introduction, Eric mentioned questions such as ‘What services are being provided to the public? † Who's providing those services? † and â€Å"What does that cost? † With tha t being said he went through and made adjustments to public fees and some have gone up as well as down.Although, I am not too aware of what exactly was being discussed, these questions definitely made me think about how money is being spent. I may not be familiar with certain topics, however I do pay taxes and I should make it a priority to be involved and know exactly where my money is being invested. It's up to the city council to decide how fees are paid, but it is our tax money that is being used so it is important to be aware of these decisions. Another topic that was brought up was the mural; the public does not agree that it takes eight hours to approve a mural.The city manager Martin States the benefits, salaries, and overhead cost are included, then a staff report along with an agenda that is published by the adman assistant is sent to the commission. The city council claims it is the true cost for the current staffing that they have to process one application to go to the commission. Larry Ken has complained several times about the meeting taking to long to process a mural, as he is talking he is cut off and does not appreciate that he is being rushed as he states his concerns.The council uses the â€Å"save a pet mural† to demonstrate the steps that take place, for example sometimes a meeting with the chair is necessary and furthermore the artist themselves to discuss numbers etc. Another topic that was brought up was the cost of business license, so many people work out of their homes and many are complaining that they are not being paid due to high prices. Currently, if you do not have a business location in the city and your business is in Palm Springs and your doing landscaping in Desert Hot Springs it is double the business license fee.A city council member is concerned to whether this is reasonable and how it is being monitored. Some cities do not even require a business license, however DISH has a business license tax per ordinance. In closing, it was brought up amongst the council that city matters are better off handling administratively to avoid public hearings. As council members or mayors they eve a tendency to get over involved in city business instead of referring to staff, which would make it much easier to conduct city business.Council member McKee feels it is necessary to be friendly to the people that live there as well as the businesses. There are several things that need to be reduced such as the event fee, mural fees, and possibly get rid of the garage sales fee. However it is argued that if the garage sales fee is removed perhaps residents will try to make it and everyday event, then again it should not be a fee everyone has to pay. Business licenses need to be simplified and made a lot heaper so it will encourage people actually to get them rather than avoid them.As a city council, a policy should be made every three years compared to seven years, this is for good management and to be aware Of whe re money is being spent due to current budget issues. I'm glad we had this assignment it gave me a different perspective to how important I am as a resident. I pay taxes yet I am not even aware fatwa they are being used for, that alone is a main concern of mine. I've become more interested in what goes on in my own city, and plan to go to the next council meeting that is held.Some of the arguments that were brought up were reasonable but some also did not have enough evidence to back up their statement. It is important to do research before you speak because council members are not afraid to cut you off based on how much information that must be covered in such a short period of time. It is not in a sense to be rude, however with so much to discuss it is important to Stay on track and take more time on the bigger issues going on. As a city we should all be more involved and voice our opinions that is one of the reasons why these meetings are held to begin with.

Jacob Lawrence Essay

1.0 Background Jacob Lawrence, one of the most important artists of the 20th century and best known for his series of narrative paintings depicting important moment in African American history was born on 7th September 1917 in Atlantic City (pbs.org, para. 1). He spent a portion of his childhood life in Pennsylvania after which his parents separated in 1924. Jacob and his siblings went with the mother to New York and settled in Harlem. He was introduced to art at his teen age when his mother enrolled him in Utopia Children’s center which provided an after school art program in Harlem. By 1930’s he could participate in the art programs at the Harlem Art Workshop and the Harlem community art centre, where he got a chance to meet leading American artists of the time such as Augusta Savage and Charles Alton, the director of Harlem workshop at the time and who later became a professor of art at Howard University (pbs.org, para.1). Having trained as a painter at the Harlem workshop inside the New York Public Library’s 113 5th street branch, and despite being much younger than   most of the artists and other writers who took part in the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920’s, Lawrence was a force to recon with (Hughes, para.2). He was not interested in the type of idealized and fake primitives of blacks otherwise referred to as the Noble Negroes in art Deco guise, as they were usually produced as an antidote to the stereotypical racists. He gained confidence particularly from Alain Locke, who was a Harvard trained artist and also the first black Rhodes scholar in America. Locke strongly believed in the pieces of work done by blacks, as it could speak explicitly to African-Americans while still embodying value as well as self critical powers of modernism. Precisely, Locke believed that, â€Å"There is in truly great art in no essential conflict between racial or national traits and universal human valu es† (Hughes, para. 2). 2.0 The work of Jacob Lawrence Lawrence became well known at the age of 21 years when he did his â€Å"Toussant L’Ouverture Series†, a 41 painting collection that depicted a successful rebellion by the Haitian slaves. Three years later at the age of 24, his work became the first from an African American to be included in the permanent collection of the New York Museum of Modern Art (Lawrence, para. 1). Lawrence therefore considered himself to be both an artist and an educator. He used his art to tell stories about the black American history as he felt that this was being overlooked in the teaching of history in America. For instance, Lawrence did a forty panel series which he called â€Å"The Life of Harriet Tubman† who in the 1800s had helped many slaves in the north to free through an Underground Railroad (Sernett, pp. 218). From his childhood, Lawrence had been steeped in stories about movement and migration and therefore with encouragement from Locke, he worked hard to get historical background and related facts right. Months of research in the Schomburg Collection of the Public Library which is the chief archive of African American life and history in New York, saw the realization of his other piece of work, â€Å"Migration Series† which could help trace the mass influx of African Americas from the south to the North as a result of World War I. The two series are known for use of detailed titles and creative images to create narrative history of events (Lawrence, para. 2). Additionally, the series are notable for lack of language use. The author was in no way a propagandist. He however advocated for front social realism which was at its peak in America at the time as evidenced by labor camps, prisons, deserted villages, city slums and race riots which were mainly his subject matter. Lawrence attributed his success to his black experience which was his heritage, more so as far as black Americans struggle to secure independence and justice was concerned. Even during adult hood, he extended this theme to include all human struggles for liberty, and although each of his paintings evidenced his sense of humor as well as human pain and misery, they offered hope for the human condition. In 1937, Lawrence secured a two-year scholarship to the American artist school, where he studied with the   Wilson, Philip Riesman and Eugene Moreley before marrying one of the pupil of Savage who was also a west Indian painter, Gwendolyn Knight in 1941.This scholarship took him out of Harlem but he still maintained a close contact with the community which was the focus of his work as evidenced by his work â€Å"Street Scene Restaurant†, â€Å"Street orator†, â€Å"Interior† and â€Å"Interior scenes† which were shown in 1938. Other notable work that was done by Lawrence were a 32 painting series, â€Å"The Frederic Douglass† and the 22 panel   series that he painted while on honeymoon in 1941. In the explosive 1960s, Lawrence painted what most critics have called his work of â€Å"Protest† in favor of civil rights struggle in the South. In one of his paintings, â€Å"The ordeal of Alice†, he showed a black girl dressed in white trying to get into a newly desegregated school in the South but demonic tormentors attack her with arrows in a scene that is common only with religious martyrs. In the late 1960s though, Lawrence progressed from portraying racial injustice into showing racial harmony. At this time he did his series, â€Å"Builders†, which showed both whites and blacks working together in building projects, scenes which could be interpreted to mean rebuilding the society. Despite the changing trends, both political and in artistic field, Lawrence remained true to his own original and creative path until his death in June 9, 2000 (Sernett, pp. 82). 3.0 His work compared with others A comparison between the work of art done by Jacob Lawrence and that of other artists of his time reveals a lot of difference, with most these differences inclined to Lawrence’s outstanding. While most of the artists, especially those doing watercolor paintings like him, are usually inclined to beauty and elegance, Lawrence was different. Even the most recent artists such as Thomas Deir, despite making  Ã‚   the highest sale of $ 10,000 in the Waikiki gallery, do not seem to belong to the same school of thought with Jacob Lawrence (hawaiiart.com). The work of Lawrence, despite bringing out beauty, also carries some real life meanings as far as human life is concerned. The â€Å"Toussant L’Ouverture Series†, for example is a series that is not only elegant but also carries success. Depicting a successful rebellion by slaves, especially at the time when slave trade and slavery accompanied with a lot of other human misery was rampant, the painting can be said to carry more than Thomas Dier’s   â€Å"Mokulua Milky Way   valued at   over $2000† as far as   human values and relevance   is concerned (hawaiiart.com). Other renowned artists such Judy Abott or Michelle Amatrula, though recognized for making huge sales from their pieces of work, do not address contemporary issues like Lawrence does. The other artist who could in away compares to Jacob Lawrence is Martin Johnson Heade (1819-1904) who is particularly known for his Luminists landscape particularly of the storms and marshes in South America as well as still life paintings. Martin Johnson Heade (originally Heed) was equally a talented artist of the nineteenth century. He is remembered for   his flora, fauna and landscape paintings that do not only have a rich effect of color and light but could also portray some poetic sentiments. Lawrence however still appears to outweigh Heade in what can be drawn from a critical analysis of their work. Put in simple terms, while the work from both artists share beauty, Lawrence has some educative aspect injected into his work. By all definitions, Lawrence was better than most of the other artists of the time as evidenced by the numerous awards and credit that goes to his name. In 1974, the Whitney Museum of American Art held a major retrospective of the work done by Lawrence which later resulted to his election to the American Academy of Arts and Letters in 1983, while in 1977, he received an invitation to paint during the inauguration of Jimmy Carter. In May 2007, the White House Historical Association bought Lawrence’s â€Å"Builders† shown below for $2.5 million at auction. This painting today hangs in the white House Green Room (Crehan, para.5). 4.0 Conclusion Jacob Lawrence is probably one of the best artists that ever appeared on the face of earth. His work reveals a rare talent that he recognized and exploited fully. Despite being a black American, he beat all odds to become one of the best artists of the 21st century while the plight of fellow black Americans remained a dear concern to his heart. This is what his work addressed.  Jacob Lawrence is no doubt a legend whose life deserves recognition by and over generations while his artistic work will continue to demand respect over centuries.

Should Marijuana be legalized Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Should Marijuana be legalized - Research Paper Example Information about the history of Marijuana in the United States, the reasons behind its listing as a controlled drug, and the political connection to the ban will be discussed in as much detail as possible over the upcoming pages. To begin with, we must acknowledge that Marijuana was not always deemed an illegal substance in the United States. The Hemp plant itself, which is the original form of Marijuana, was widely used in what was then British America as woven fabric, food, incense, and rope. Such was the importance of Marijuana to the development of the country that back in 1619 Jamestown, Virginia declared that all farmers needed to grow Hemp. In fact, the 1850 census of America listed 8, 327 Hemp â€Å"plantations† covering a minimum of 2,000 acres meant for industrial and food purposes. But in the 1900s, the Mexicans began to flow into the United States, taking along with them their habit of smoking Marijuana. It was widely believed that the Mexicans were adversely affected by the plant that they smoked, hence the government ban on the same plant in the country. In a way, it was the method by which America decided to control the actions of the illegal immigrants in the country (Guither, Peter â €Å"Why is Marijuana Illegal?†). In a way, the ban on Marijuana was seen as a way to get rid of the Mexican laborers that entered the country during the great depression. While other states banned the plant believing that it was the cause of the high crime rate in their area (Block, Alan â€Å"Why Marijuana Became Illegal - The Basic Facts). While the aforementioned historical reasons for the ban on Marijuana may have rang true during its era. The reasons as to why Marijuana continues to be banned in the 21st century in some states of America have long shied away from those traditional reasons. These days, the ban is based mostly in scientific and psychological evidence of the prolonged smoking of the plant on

Andrew Jackson's attitude toward the Indians Essay

Andrew Jackson's attitude toward the Indians - Essay Example His past involvement, in the defeat of the Creek Indians, could have been his motivation to champion the removal of Cherokee Indians to avoid a repeat of what happened with the Creeks. This essay aims to determine the reasons behind his support for the Removal Act and establish if there were any other underlying factors or ambitions to encourage this. Andrew Jackson’s attitude towards the Indians was based on his past encounters with the Indians in war and peaceful negotiations. He was the commanding general in the defeat of the Creek Indians, and he experienced the devastation the war brought to the Indian tribes. He wanted to help the Cherokee Indians avoid the ravages of war (Stewart 11). Jackson addressed the congress in the first Annual Message of 1829, elaborating his stand on the Indian issue by castigating the congress over their support of the idea of assimilating the tribes. He instead promoted the idea of relocating the Cherokee Indians to the West of the Mississippi from the Eastern side. The reason for Jackson’s support of the Removal Act was because, as the leader of the Tennessee militia he had tried along with his troops, to make sure that the whites and the Indians respected each other’s rights. This endeavor proved to be a losing battle because white civilization had a greater, impact on the native Indian’s lifestyle, than they had on the white population who saw them as savages. His deployment of hundreds of soldiers to quell the friction between the settlers and the natives led to more casualties than was projected. As president, Andrew Jackson proposed to congress that the best way to deal with the Indian situation; as he considered it, was to offer them more treaties; guaranteeing their rightful ownership of land that they occupied west of the Mississippi. He did this by rooting for the dissolution of the American Bank that gave him powers to control the finances of the state’s largest sole source of revenue. He used this monetary power to issue incentives to Indians who were willing to leave on their own accord. He promised compensation to every woman, child, and man, who voluntarily left the Eastern Mississippi territory for the Western Mississippi frontier (Stewart 23). Jackson’s ethical grounding was based on the fact that his administratio n wanted to save the Cherokee Indians, of the humiliation of going against the United States, which would eventually lead to their defeat as witnessed by the Indian Creek war. The Cherokee Indians would not prosper under the Georgian laws because they had a different way of life and their customs did not rhyme with those of the white settlers. Their youths, especially the young men were already used to frequenting the local bars and getting intoxicated, and their response to this new found past time was a reaction that was not tolerated by the then laws. He thus offered the Cherokee Indians a better alternative of the leaving the Eastern banks of the Mississippi. The Jackson administration offered to compensate the Indian Cherokees for whatever land they had occupied in the Eastern banks (Stewart 31). Jackson reiterated to the people that his sole ambition was to protect the Cherokee Indians from extinction as other Indian tribes had perished The discovery of gold in the state of Ca rolina could have been an underlying factor to Jackson’s increased zeal to get rid of the Cherokee Indi

Individual report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 2

Individual report - Essay Example Online operation has also enabled the Sky PLC to effectively communicate the features and other factors relating to their services to their customers and potential customers. On their website customers can create their own accounts making it easier for customers to access any information that they want regarding the company’s services. Development of a tailored user interface and activities enables Sky to support and enrich its sustainable business practices. The entertainment industry is a difficult industry to penetrate and as much difficult for a company to maintain its hold on the market. Sky faces a lot of competition from equally able companies such as Virgin Atlantic. To keep its hold on the market and more so to maintain its hold of its present customers, it becomes exigent to diversify its marketing techniques and such way is through the use of electronic media, especially the internet (Miletsky 2009 p. 217). The advent of satellite made it possible for Sky to boost its market position. The marketing objectives for Sky have always been to create fresh interest and demand for Sky and to make sure potential customers understand the benefits that come along with using Sky’s products. However, as much as this is necessary or seems necessary in keeping a business going, an extra component of awareness is added to complement this. The campaign and communications have also become an integral part of Sky Digital’s marketing mix embracing public relations (PR), sponsorship and consumer promotions, in-store marketing, branding and direct marketing activities (Whalen 2009 p. 172). Focus on e-marketing has proved to be important in most industries, with the target market carving the direction the company takes. For Sky, the major part of its business is aimed at providing digital content. Their target market is divided depending on the content. For example, films would suit film lovers and couples, home banking would suit busy, career minded people and

Report on CAN Bus Technologies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Report on CAN Bus Technologies - Essay Example In the wake of which Intel delivered the first CAN chip, the 82526. Shortly thereafter, Philips Semiconductors introduced the 82C200 CAN controller On the academic front where larger universities and research labs obtained more computers during the late 1960s, experiments were started to meet the demand of setting up communication links between these computers so that the data could be shared swiftly with least interruptions and without other undesirable delays. Hence the development of Ethernet at XEROX PARC 1973-75[4], and its subsequent deployment followed by the seminal paper - "Ethernet Distributed Packet Switching For Local Computer Networks" in 1976 by Metcalfe and Boggs. By early 80s, the flux of Dos based computers in the Industry, where resources such as Disk space and Laser printers were dear, triggered the need to share them along with the data over the channel that could be easily adjusted. In other words these were the early attempts made to provide a solution to meet the demand of sharing resources and smart delivery system and transferring data over affordable physical wiring. Of which only Novel Netware could provide a relatively feasible solution with an operating system that could put 40 computers in a network sharing data and the resources over the same wiring network. By 1992, when many vendors used their technologies, only compatible to their own equipments, to produce solutions by setting up communication links between two or more devices, no one could convince the other to form an open system that was compatible in general, the need to found a user's group to standardize the different solutions forced Holger Zeltwanger to bring together users and manufacturers to establish the 'CAN in Automation' (CiA) international users and manufacturers association. Since no standard protocols existed to transfer or receive data at either end of the communication channel provided by various vendors, the foremost job of CiA was to set up the specifications of the CAN Application Layer (CAL). And by 1993, Bosch led a European consortium to design a test project with communication protocols- a step towards setting up a compatible system for internal working of productions cells: the CANopen. The system aimed at providing a framework for programmable systems, devices to suit the systems, interfacing between various components and the application profiles. This facility enabled the industry to exploit it in the printing devices, medicals devices and many more. By early 1990s efforts were made to develop a communication profile to address the layers that dealt with the applications at communicating ends. 'DeviceNet' and 'Smart Distributed System' (SDS) were developed. These were the higher layers and the focus of these

Describe the perceived roles and involvements of management accounting Essay

Describe the perceived roles and involvements of management accounting in supporting the decision process within the Union Carbide Pesticide Plant prior to the disaster; - Essay Example Such was the extent too great that when a week after that more than 8000 other people died with gas related ailments which were also attributed to the disaster in the same period (Ingrid 2001). Some of the main management accounting issues that can be learnt from this prior to the disaster happening can mainly be attributed the fact that the courts found the management of the UCIL(Union Carbide India Limited), the parent company responsible to be liable for negligence. This lead to their ligation and consequently finding the ex-employees liable for negligence fining them $2000 each (BBC News,2010). There were a number of cost management issues that could be identified prior to the disaster. Ingrid (2005) notes that prior to the happening of the disaster, the demand for pesticides that are made from the gas had fallen. This is said to have attributed to the build up of the gas within the firm as there was reduced use of the gas for the pesticides’ manufacure. However, the firm could not reduce the amount they were manufacturing could be mainly be associated with the break even cost of the manufacturing. Manufacturing less as per the requirement at that time could have to increased cost and thus the company decided to continue producing at that that higher rate even when less of the gas was required. Ingrid (2006) says that prior to the disaster, there had been two trade unions who had been quoted to have been complaining about the pollution within the plant. This means that the plan had not put in place a proper waste and anti pollution policies within the plan. The result had been a worker losing life after the employee was splashed with phosgene while at work. Pollution management within any organization should be planned for and costed for by the management within the organization. While it is a cost that many organizations may

Compare Mac and Windows System Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Compare Mac and Windows System - Essay Example Hence, they dominate the market. The cost difference is mainly because of the hardware running on these operating systems (Junior & Kumar, 2014). Apple has exclusive rights to the hardware produced that run on the MAC operating system. On the other hand, Windows-based system has third party developers. Therefore, unlike MAC system where there is only one manufacturer, competition is often low. On the contrary, in Windows system, there are a number of competitors, which results in lower prices. Design is another big difference between Apple MAC systems and Microsoft Windows system. In this aspect, MAC products tend to be superior. The unconventional focus on design by the former Apple CEO Steve Jobs explains this. Manufacturers of Windows based hardware often attempt to create more design-oriented models to compete with Apple products with none yet to achieve the popular acclaim commanded by MAC products (Oh & Moon, 2012).However, Windows based systems have the advantage of having a variety of designs. Consumers have a variety of design options on account of the fact that the Windows based systems have thousands of manufacturers. With MAC products, consumers are limited to Apple’s design. MAC system is more compatible with other software than Window system, which only support Windows friendly software. However, Windows has software that is more widely available with limited number of software written for MAC operating system (Zhang, SÃ ©nac, Lochin, & Diaz, 2013). Windows system still has several programs that are specific to it. To close this gap, MAC collaborated with Microsoft on the popular Office Suite. Windows Office still has more features and functionality than the MAC version. Malware and viruses are often designed to target Windows-based system. This is because a vast number of computers in the world run on Windows system. For this reason, MAC systems tend to be more secure. However, it does not imply that the attack on MAC system is impossible,

The White Tiger by Aravind Adiga Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The White Tiger by Aravind Adiga - Essay Example Balram is a boy with little education and the urge to break away from the life of poverty and misery into which he is born. As Balram Halwai is thrust into the glittering life of the rich in India’s capital, the difference between those in his station in life and that of his employers is sharply brought into focus. This is the turning point, and it is the humiliations and injustices that he faces that finally push him into using any means to escape into a better life. As he explains "In the old days there were one thousand castes...in India. These days, there are just two castes: Men with Big Bellies, and Men with Small Bellies."(pg 64) Balram is determined to do whatever it takes to become a big-bellied man, and to this end, he resorts to bribing the police, bending the rules or even worse. After all he has learnt these lessons from his rich masters themselves! I think the protagonist of Aravind Adiga’s novel is an entrepreneur. He has most of the qualities that are re quired for entrepreneurship. Balram himself lists these when he says â€Å"The Indian entrepreneur has to be straight and crooked, mocking and believing, sly and sincere at the same time.†(pg 9) Einstein once said, "Imagination is more important than knowledge." (Albert Einstein Quotes) and Balram Halwai echoes this when he swears by his favourite poet Iqbal’s words â€Å"They remain slaves because they cannot see what is beautiful.† (pg 40)... His ability to think on his feet is sharply brought into focus when he alone is able to answer the inspector’s questions. His ability to recall things he has seen, read and overheard and his intuition about the way they fit into the scheme of things is what is appreciated by the inspector who sees a bright future for the village lad. Balram calls himself a â€Å"half baked fellow’’ because he has only a few years of schooling, and further adds that â€Å"entrepreneurs are made from half baked clay.† (pg 11) Balram Halwai’s ability to take life as it comes and seize opportunity whenever it arises is amply displayed as he eavesdrops on conversations at the teashops where he is forced to work, and uses the scraps of knowledge thus gained to educate himself on the goings on in the world around him. He puts it very succinctly when he says â€Å"I am a man of action and change†. Overhearing that drivers were paid well and they were required in lar ge numbers in the coal mining town of Dhanbad where he works in a teashop, the boy cajoled his granny into giving him the money he needed to learn how to drive a car. Although he knew that the driver who taught him was taking advantage of him and making him spend a lot of his time doing free repair jobs on taxis; he stuck to his resolve to learn driving and mastered it. Having mastered driving skills was only a beginning, he had to get a driver’s job in an environment where merit was no criterion. Caught up as he is, in the morass of corruption, inequality and poverty, he bides his time and waits for the right opening to press home the advantage. Knowing the right people and greasing the right palms was how one got a job, and the poor lad was a nobody and had no help in that department. His intuition and ability

UNIFICATION IN GERMANY&IN ITALY Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

UNIFICATION IN GERMANY&IN ITALY - Essay Example This code is called The Napoleonic Code. It is still a basis for many European laws. Napoleon was determined to change the confusing and contradictory royal laws so that he could reform the French legal system. Before the establishment of the Napoleonic Code, France did not have a single set of laws. So, the Napoleonic Code proved a milestone for the French legal system.1 The Napoleonic Code gave more power to men before the law, while women lost some of their significant rights that were granted to them during the time of revolution. The code states that the wife should be obedient to the husband and it is the duty of the husband to fulfill the needs of the wife within whatever means he has, and the husband is also responsible for providing protection to his wife. The code describes this relationship in the following words: â€Å"The wife is obliged to live with her husband, and to follow him to every place where he may judge it convenient to reside: the husband is obliged to receive her and to furnish her with every necessity for the wants of life, according to his means and station.†2 The code also states that a wife cannot begin legal proceedings without her husband’s authority, even if she is a public figure or a trader or has any other significant status in society, unless the judge gives her the right. But the authority of the husband does not matter when the wife is involved in any criminal case or police matter. The code states that in the case of divorce, the management of children will lie with the husband or petitioner unless the authority is given to the mother or family for greater advantage of the children. As the code states in Clause 267 of the Divorce section: â€Å"The provisional management of the children  shall rest with the husband, petitioner, or defendant, in the suit for divorce, unless it be otherwise ordered for the greater advantage of the children, on petition of

Marriage and Divorce in Colonial Korea Essay Example for Free

Marriage and Divorce in Colonial Korea Essay The article â€Å"Where Boys Were Kings, a Shift Toward Baby Girls† from The New York Times relays to readers the significant and profound changes in Korean society in relation to preference of female children over their male counterparts in Korean families.   In Korea, preference for boys is a centuries old custom and was rooted in part in an agrarian society that relied on sons to do the difficult work on family farms.   Men were also accorded special status because they were considered the carriers of the family’s all-important bloodline.    As Yang mentioned in Korea times, many people (mostly men) still think that â€Å"men are sky and women are land†. Under a highly conservative Confucianism based society, these changes in preference of baby girls especially highlights a shift in women’s status in Korea. The New York Times provides an example of Ms. Park’s situation.   Ms. Park is a 61-year-old newspaper executive who has three sons.   Only several decades ago, women who could reproduce many boys were considered the ideal wife.   However, Ms. Park now says that â€Å"within a generation, I have turned from the luckiest woman possible to a pitiful mother†.   As seen in Ms. Park’s interview in South Korea, once one of Asia’s most rigidly patriarchal societies, a centuries-old preference for baby boys is fast receding. This kind of significant change started from 1987 when â€Å"the government banned doctors from revealing the sex of a fetus before birth†.   Since then, women’s status improved each year.   As compared to fewer than one out of ten women entering college in 1981, six out of ten did so in 2006.   Also in the National Assembly, once one of the nation’s most male-dominated institution, women now hold about 13 percent of the seats, about double the percentage they held just four years ago†. As we examined in Yoo’s article â€Å"The ‘New Woman’ and the Politics of Love, Marriage and Divorce in Colonial Korea†, there was a time when education, political involvement, and sense of freedoms were limited for women in Korea.   For being one of the group of young educated Korean women, I am very proud. For the older generation of women, who have tried to find their true rights as a â€Å"modern girl†, I owe their struggles to my success.

Cattle breeding: Sanitary practices and perceptions

Cattle breeding: Sanitary practices and perceptions Chapter 1: Introduction Cattle are raised mainly for meat and dairy products in Mauritius. Cattle breeding are an essential component of modern agriculture. According to norms, safe food of animal origin must be free from pathogens and contaminants. There is a need to reduce the risk and if possible, eliminate it at the on the farm stage. Cattle disease compromise animal welfare, reduce productivity and can also infect human beings. Sanitary conditions and perceptions in cattle breeding farms are very important to ensure a better health of the cattle and consumers of the products. The main reason for disease prevention and management for breeders is the gain in productivity. Sanitary conditions are very crucial in the disease prevention and management. The health of the cow and its environment, improperly cleaned and sanitized milk handling equipment, and workers who milk cows and come in contact with milk due to a number of reasons could serve as sources of microbial contamination of milk (Yirsaw A.W,2004). Contaminants in the form of chemical residues are also of concern to public. Controlling the safety of food of animal origin at the primary production stage therefore involves all the measures (implemented at the farm or production unit level) necessary to ensure that these contaminants do not end up in animal products, or, if they do, that their levels do not exceed the maximum permissible levels, notably the maximum residue limits and microbiological criteria set by Codex Alimentarius Commission (OIE, 2008). Many factors influence milk composition and hence the nature and abundance of the microbial load. The conditions of raw milk production, in particular the hygienic practices of farmers (e.g washing of milking equipment an d pre and post milking udder preparation), determine the contents in useful products and spoilage microorganisms (lafarge V et al, 2004). Henceforth, this case study of dairy cattle breeders, help in meeting the following objectives of the project. The main objective of the study is to assess sanitary practices and perceptions in dairy cattle breeding farms. The specific objectives are: To assess the sanitary milking practices in dairy cattle breeding farm through pre-milking teat disinfection, foremilk rejection and post-milking teat disinfection. To investigate on sanitation practices in dairy cattle breeding farm through practices of cleaning and sanitizing milking equipment. To assess level of awareness on mastitis and sanitary conditions at farmers working place. To evaluate responses based on survey questionnaire on sanitary practices and perceptions on dairy cattle breeding farms. Chapter 2: Literature Review Evolution of dairy cattle breeding Mauritius is categorized as a net food importing country. The dairy production contributes negligibly to the countrys economy with only 2% local milk production (AREU, 2007). According to Milliken (1986), there were about 22,000 milch cattle in 1914, representing a little more than 50% of the total cattle herd at this time (Heera MK, 2008). However the number of cattle head and farmers has been steadily declining over the years, leading to the current situation of only 7150 heads for 1758 breeders (CSO, 2008). Traditionally, the dairy industry in Mauritius was dominated by backyard producers, mostly women. But many of them abandoned farming in the 1980s to take higher paid jobs in the textile and clothing manufacturing industry (Ackbarally N, 2009). Simultaneously the sanitary problems (number of complaints due to lack of sanitation) and diseases, poor management also accounts for the decline. Food crisis in relation to dairy cattle rearing The food crisis which has hit with alarming speed and force the planet over the past recent years has showed how vulnerable net importing countries, like Mauritius, are against such situation. The milk (UHT and powdered) import bill has increased from Rs 975 M in 2001 to Rs 1.8 billion in 2007, representing a 85 per cent rise, while the import volume has remained unchanged (around 17,500 tonnes) (Anon, 2009a). Since the early 1980s milk consumption has grown more than 3 percent per year in developing countries and is projected to grow even faster through 2020. Meat consumption has been growing about 5 percent per year and is expected to grow 2.7% per year through 2020 compared to a low 0.6% per year in rich countries (Zessin K.H, 2002). Hence in response to the global rising food prices and shortages, the government is implementing measures to foster local production of milk and meat to mitigate, in short and medium term, the dependency of the country on imported food commodities. To stimulate dairy production, the government has introduced a battery of grants and loans to purchase equipment, import improved genetic breeds and acquire land for grazing (Ackbarally N, 2009). Importance of Sanitation in dairy cattle breeding farm Sanitary condition is defined as the state of sanitation whereby sanitation is the formulation and application of measures designed to protect public health (wikipedia). The cattle breeding are often viewed as a lucrative opportunity. There are nevertheless a series of complications which may arise during such an event if proper hygiene and sanitation is not maintained. When it comes to sanitation at farm, it is closely linked with Food safety which is now universally recognized as a public health priority. There are a series of precaution that can be taken by farmers, right at the first stage of the food chain, to optimise the food safety control of products of animal origin (OIE, 2006). This inevitably means controlling the health status of the animals from which food products are derived. World organization for animal health (OIE) In this age of globalisation, ensuring healthy, hazard-free food is one of the key issues for international organisations working in this field. To this end, the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) work closely together, each in its area of competence (OIE, 2008). Since 2002, the OIE has had responsibility for animal production food safety. The renewed importance conferred by the Sanitary and Phytosanitary measures (SPS Agreement) to the OIE and to WHO/FAO has spurred the interest of countries around the globe (Zessin K.H, 2002). Preliminary Environmental report Cattle rearing do have certain direct and indirect impacts on the environment which require special attention while setting up a farm. Those impacts are mostly associated with solid and liquid waste originating from the farm such as; wastewater from cleaning activities, urine, and manure. Other problems such odour nuisance and flies nuisance are not to be omitted. In case the farm is near residential areas, consultation with neighbours and all other bodies who are likely to be affected by the farm is compulsory. According to Environmental Protection Act 2002, livestock rearing on a scale of up to 20 heads require a Preliminary Environmental Report in which all the environmental and socio-economic parameters are addressed and their impacts are identified and taken into account in the project design (Anon, 2009b). Dairy cattle breeding There are mainly three types of farms in Mauritius. These are: Small Scale farms Locally cattle breeding are more of a family business. Cattle rearing are carried out in a traditional manner in the backyard as a part time activity. The small cattle breeders also known as cowkeepers mostly live in the country side and they own on average two to three lactating cows that are kept in enclosed shed(RATES, 2004). The level of inputs and management vary greatly among the farmers and they are generally low because of limited facilities and lack of financial resources. Medium Scale farms Medium scale farm is quite similar to small scale farm. However they have slightly better management practices in terms of inputs (e.g. better feeding system) and modern techniques are applied e.g. use of milking machine ( Ackbarally N, 2009). Large Scale farms Presently there are two private farms namely Golden Cream Dairy farm ltd at Salazie and SKC Surat Co Ltd at Rose-Belle who are operating at large scale for commercial milk production. Another type of large scale farms which have almost ceased to exist is the Government Dairy farm. In the past there were three Government dairy farms that would keep around 200 head of cattle. Richelieu Livestock Breeding Station (RLPU) has been converted into a quarantine station and recently the Palmar Livestock Breeding Station has been closed. Presently there exists only the Curepipe livestock Research station where other species of livestock are also reared with the main objective to carry out research and development activities in livestock production and training for the benefit of farmers. Guiding objective for good dairy farming practice The guiding objective for good dairy farming practice is that milk should be produce on-farm from healthy animals under generally accepted conditions. This is achieved by applying good agricultural practice in the five areas. Health Management Cows that produce milk need to be healthy and an effective health care programme should be in place. Animal health care includes different veterinary treatments given to the animals for early detection of diseases, prevention of disease spread among healthy animals, prevention of transmission of zoonoses and to ensure traceability (FAO/IDF, 2004). It is important to have strict control of any animal introductions to prevent the movement of the infectious diseases onto the farm. Sick animals are liable to be a major source of disease to healthy animals and hence need to be segregated to reduce the chances of diseases spreading. In case where animals are imported or brought from other local farms, they need to be kept in isolation from the existing herd for about 30 days. This is done again to prevent contamination of existing herds by parasites and pathogens (AREU, 2004). Other activities such as vaccination and deworming schedules, hoof management and routine health assessment form p art of a good Health Management. Guidelines to be followed for effective housing of cows Dairy housing systems have a substantial impact on the overall health and longevity of dairy cattle (Barberg A.E et al, 2007). In addition to keeping animals healthy, a critical part of husbandry is also to make sure they are kept visibly clean. It is of particular importance, to reduce the possibility of contamination of the food, for milking animals and for animals destined for slaughter not to have dirty outer coats. A major influence on the cleanliness of the animals is the type of housing, the material used as bedding and the underfoot conditions if the animals are kept outside (A M Johnston, 2000). Where cows are kept indoors it is important that suitable and adequate buildings be provided if the cows are to be fully productive. Good dairy farm buildings are extremely important in considering any of the hygienic aspects of milk handling (WHO, 1962). The design of the housing system is also important so that there is adequate space and facilities to optimize feeding, collection of manure, cleaning, washing, artificial insemination. The housing system can be either loose or tied system with adequate space and facilities to optimize feeding, collection of manure, cleaning, washing, artificial insemination and milking (AREU, 2007). Layout The general layout of a dairy farm should be according to the number and category of animals to be housed. The cowhouse is a specialized building which should be carefully designed and constructed so as to provide comfortable and healthy housing for the cows and at the same time to enable them to be milked in clean conditions. Housing must be managed hygienically to avoid soiling of animal. A standing of 1.5m long has been found most suitable to enable cows to lie clean, but with the smaller breeds of cow 1.4m or less may be sufficient (WHO, 1962). Moreover it should be free of obstruction and hazards; dead ends, and steep and slippery pathways should be avoided. It should be resistant to adverse weather conditions and consequences thereof especially cyclones, unseasonal change causing cold or heat stress (FAO/IDF, 2004). The windows should be fitted with hinged shutters to be used in case of cyclonic conditions. Floor The floor should be non-slippery to minimize slipping and bruising due to rough uneven floors. Unsuitable floors may inhibit mounting or lead to injuries during mating. The floor should be preferably sloping 10 cm above surrounding ground to enable drainage of urine in a canal leading to a suitable point of disposal as required by the Sanitary Authority (AREU, 2007). Wall Plastering of the wall to a height of at least 1.5m is recommended to prevent accumulation of dirt, disease germs and to facilitate cleaning (WHO, 1962). Cowshed should be provided with at least two doors, one opening on the feeding passage and the other one on the manure cum milking passage. Ventilation and lighting The regular renewal of the air in a cowshed is essential for the maintenance of the health of the cows and prevention of contamination of milk (WHO, 1962). The cowshed should have sufficient openings to allow natural ventilation and adequate sunlight. This will enable proper supply of fresh air to remove humidity, allow heat dissipation and prevent build-up of gases such as carbon dioxide, ammonia or slurry gases (FAO/IDF, 2004). Direct sunlight helps to keep the shed dry and would act as a germ killer. Water Supply Water supply plays an imminent role in maintaining a proper sanitary balance in breeding farms. Besides being used for drinking purpose, efficient water supply helps in cleaning and other activities leading to part of proper sanitation. The cow needs a lot of water (up to 50L daily) to be able to produce saliva for rumination and milk production. It is best to allow the animal continuous access to ample fresh and clean water (AREU, 2004). Water is an obvious potential source of pathogens because it can contain nutrients from feed or manure and be contaminated with pathogens, thereby serving as a vehicle to contaminate or infect animals on consumption (CAST, 2004). E. coli 0157:H7 is found commonly in water troughs on farms and feedlots and persists in these environments for as long as four months (Lejeune J.T et al, 2001). Water supplies should be clear and free of excrement (FAO/IDF, 2004). Feed Management For healthy living and proper growth, reproduction and milk production, dairy cattle require a daily balanced diet. The feed contains nutrient namely carbohydrates, fat, proteins, minerals (e.g. calcium, phosphorus) and vitamins (A, D, E, K). Moreover, foodstuffs which are fed to animals must be free from both pathogens and undesirable residues. Since Mauritius is mainly based on a zero-grazing system, breeders have to make provision for forage based on a cut-and-carry fodder system. The source of forages varies among breeders; they are collected from Sugar Cane Estates or along roadsides, fallow lands, riverbanks, and state lands or vegetable fields (Heera M.K, 2008). Withholding periods should be applied to forage crops if they have been treated with agricultural chemical, prior to use as feed. Control storage conditions of feed The different control measures in relation to feedstuffs and its storage are as follows: Feeds intended for different species should be separated. No animal material should be included in dairy cattle feed rations. Appropriate storage conditions should be ensured to avoid feed contamination. It should be ensured that animals are not able to come into contact with contaminants in areas where these feed products are stored and mixed. Hay and dry feeds should be protected from a moist environment, silage and other fermented crops should be kept under hermetically sealed conditions(AREU,2004) Moldy feed should be rejected (FAO/IDF, 2004); feeding of any moldy stock feed to milking cows should be avoided. Particular care should be taken with wheat bran, silage, hay, bagasse, cotton seed cake as these contain poisonous fungal toxins that can be transferred to milk. Fungal mycotoxins may also be present in pasture. In New Zealand, the ingestion of saprophytic fungus containing the toxin, sporidesmin, causes the disease facial eczema with impaired liver function, photosensitivity, decreased milk production and sometimes death (Ferraud C, 1995). Although the disease is uncommon in other temperate countries, it is important to realize that increased forage use carries the risk of an increased incidence of pasture borne mycotoxicoses. Milk Milk plays an important role in our daily diet. Cows milk contains a wide array of key nutrients that help support human health. It is an excellent source of protein, calcium, potassium and phosphorus. Apart from being a nutritional food, milk has a high water activity, moderate pH of 6.4 to 6.6 and ample supply of nutrients, making for an excellent medium for microbial growth. There is wide spectrum of bacteria present in nature which can contaminate milk rendering it unsafe for human consumption or unfit for further processing. Human pathogens known or likely to contaminate raw milk Microorganisms are widely present in animals and in their environment. Disease in animals is inevitable on farms, no matter how good the husbandry (Johnston, 2000). The diseases that form the greatest threat to animals are caused by microorganisms that invade the body. Diseases could be infectious (of viral or bacterial origin), non-infectious (caused by parasites) or metabolic (caused by imbalanced diet). Specific infectious diseases are generally restricted to the large farms and metabolic diseases are more commonly seen in cattle belonging to small breeders (Sibartie D, 2001). Healthy dairy cattle are considered a reservoir for several of the most important food borne human disease pathogens (Tauxe, 1997). Nontyphoidal Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter jejuni are considered important treats to food safety because of the enormous number of illness they cause. Cattle have been shown to carry Salmonella at rates as high as 64% (CAST, 2004). Listeria monocytogenes and Escherichia coli 0157:H7 are priority pathogens because of the severity of symptoms associated with infection and because of the number of deaths that occur in infected people. All of these pathogens are shed in cattle feces and can contaminate dairy farm premises including unpasteurised bulk tank milk (Ruegg P.L, 2003). Milk borne diseases Human-health threats from livestock come in two basic forms: (i) zoonotic diseases, and (ii) food-borne illnesses. Zoonotic diseases are those that arise in animals but can be transmitted to humans. Potentially pandemic viruses, such as influenza, are the most newsworthy, but many others exist, including rabies, brucellosis and anthrax (FAO 2009). A joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee (1970) on milk hygiene classified milk-borne diseases: infections of animals that can be transmitted to man: Primary importance: Tuberculosis, Brucellosis, Streptoccocal infections, ;Staphyloccocal enterotoxin poisoning, Salmonellosis, Q fever. Lesser importance; cowpox, Foot and mouth disease, Anthrax, Leptospirosis and Tick-borne encephalitis infections primary to man that can be transmitted through milk: Typhoid and paratyphoid fevers, Shigellosis, Cholera, Enteropathogenic Escherchia coli, Non-diarrhoeal diseases, Streptococcal infections, Staphylococcal food poisoning, Diphtheria, Tuberculosis, Enteroviruses and Viral hepatitis (Kamalam S, 2005) Outbreaks associated to milk Warnings to consumers about the risks of drinking raw milk have been stepped up over recent years because health professionals are trying to protect health and have seen a resurgence in milkborne diseases that had dropped dramatically with pasteurization, as raw milk has become trendy and its marketing has increased (Szwarc S, 2009). Mastitis Worldwide, mastitis is the most common disease in dairy cattle (Tan et al, 2009). Mastitis is defined as an infection of the udder, caused by bacteria entering the quarter through the teat end. According to the US national mastitis council(1996); mastitis is an inflammation of the mammary gland in response to injury for the purpose of destroying and neutralizing the infectious agents and to prepare the way for healing and return to normal function ( Fadlelmoula A.A, 2007). This results in physical, chemical and microbial changes in the milk. It can be caused by a variety of bacteria or even fungi, the most common in Mauritius being Staphylococcus epidermidis (Sibartie D, 2001). Mastitis in dairy cattle represents a disease problem which is difficult to prevent or control effectively, since so many different workers have pointed out special instances which indicate that the susceptibility to mastitis manifested by related animals might have genetic basis: various studies have given heritability estimates for mastitis resistance ranging from 0.05 to 0.38 (Warwick E J et al, 1979). Principles of mastitis control Worldwide, farmers have achieved tremendous success in reducing the incidence of contagious mastitis by adopting five basic principles of mastitis control (Ruegg P.L, 2003): Postmilking teat disinfection Universal dry cow antibiotic therapy Appropriate treatment of clinical cases Culling of chronically infected cows Regular milking machine maintenance Sources of contamination of raw milk There are several principal sources of contamination of milk. From the time the milk leaves the udder, until it is dispersed into containers, everything with which it comes into contact is a potential source of more microorganisms. Within the udder Healthy Udder For many years, it was believed that milk drawn directly from the udder of a healthy cow was a sterile fluid, that is, it contained no living microorganisms (Yirsaw A.W, 2004). In healthy cows, many microorganisms resides in the teat cistern, teat canal and teat apex. Natural flora within the udder of healthy animals is not considered to contribute significantly to the total numbers of microorganisms in the bulk milk, nor the potential increase in bacterial numbers during refrigerated storage (Murphy S.C et al, 2000). The first few streams of milk from each teat should be collected, separated, discarded. This flushes out the organisms that entered the teat through the teat opening (FSA, 2006). Unhealthy Udder In cows having mastitis, the infected udders can shed lots of microorganisms into the milk. Selim and Culor (1997) found that Streptococci and coliforms are the most dominant isolated bacteria from milk followed by Staphylococcus spp (Yagoub S.O et al, 2005 ; Murphy S.C et al, 2000). Exterior of the udder Usually the microorganisms from the skin of the animals and the microorganisms from the environment where the cow is kept and milked cause contamination to the exterior of the udder. Common organisms associated with the bedding materials are staphylococci, streptococci, coliforms, spore formers, and other gram-negative organisms (Murphy et al, 2000; Elmoslemany A.M, 2009). Surface of milk handling and storage equipment The most important factor affecting the total bulk milk bacteria count is the cleanliness of the milking system. Utensils and equipment are known to be the greatest sources of contaminants. They may account for as much as 100,000 to billion organisms per milliliter (Murphy S.C et al, 2000). Pails, strainers, milking machines, cans, pipes bottles, and other equipment used for the handling of milk are sometimes not properly washed and sanitized. Organisms survive in the cracks, corners, crevices, dents, scratches and other irregularities of the utensils. Such neglect affords ideal conditions for the growth of microorganisms before the utensils are being used again. Refrigeration is also essential to prevent or slow the growth of bacteria in raw milk. Sanitary practices The consumers are nowadays well conscious about food hygiene and they demand high standards of milk quality. Hence it is fundamental that breeders respect the quality criteria of their product to satisfy the demand and to remain in competition. Milking performed under strict hygienic conditions, with strict attention to sanitary practices, will reduce the entry of microorganisms into the milk. Naturally the fewer the organisms that get into the milk, the fewer have a chance to grow. Personal hygiene of milk handler At all stages hygiene is necessary to prevent contamination of milk. This starts from the person first handling the milk that is the milker and all throughout its handling. It is the responsibility of the milker to follow strict level of personal hygiene to prevent direct contamination of the milk. Personal hygiene of milk handler includes the following (CAC, 2004): The milker should be in good health; those with an open wound or suffering from any skin disease or any other contagious disease should not come in contact with the milk. Any injury on hands or forearms must be covered with a water-resistant bandage. He should possess a valid food handler certificate issued by Sanitary Authority Effective washing of hands and arms with proper means; adequate clean water, soap, nail brush, and thereafter drying hands and arms with a clean cloth or disposable paper towel. He should properly trim nails and must not wear ring or any other jewelry so as not to injure the udder or teats. Neat appearance; wearing clean clothes, hair cap to cover hair. Smoking is not permitted in areas for milking, and milk storage (FSA, 2006). Pre-milking practices A good milking technique is essential for the production of safe raw milk. Cleaning of teats before milking is important to remove both visible soiling (e.g. feces, bedding, mud, residual post milking disinfectant) and bacteria which could contaminate the milk. Washing with water gives the cleanest udder, teat and flank. The water should be between 200C to 400C. Long hairs from the flank and udder should be removed regularly. The wet udder should be dried with paper towel which should be used only once to prevent the spread of bacteria and other pathogens to other cows. If paper towels are not available, sterilized cloth can be used but should be replaced regularly. Thorough washing and drying may be followed by treating with disinfectant (e.g. sodium hypochlorite solution or Dipal), an approved pre-dip solution which must be effectively removed before hand milking or cluster attachment. The use of predipping using iodine has demonstrated to reduce standard plate count and coliform c ounts in raw milk by five- and six-fold respectively as compared to other methods of premilking udder preparation (Galton et al, 1986). The overall reduction of microbial loads in raw milk through the use of predipping should result in reduced numbers of zoonotic pathogens. Predipping has been shown to reduce the risk of listeria monocytogenes in milk filters by almost four-fold (Ruegg, 2003). Foremilk rejection Before the real milking can start each quarter should be inspected for physical/chemical/organoleptic abnormalities by checking the foremilk. The first milk should be spread on a dark surface, a foremilk cup or a dark tile. Abnormal milk shows discoloration, flakes, shreds, clots, blood spots and/or wateriness (Bonnier et al, 2004). If the milk shows such warning signs then the milk should be kept aside because of the risks to humans. The examination of milk must also be done before attaching milking units. Fore-milking assists early detection of mastitis removes potentially contaminated milk from the teat canal and stimulates milk let down. Cows with infected udder (mastitis) and those under treatment with antibiotics should be milked last and the contaminated milk disposed of properly (FSA, 2006). Post-milking practices After fore-milking the milker will be aware if milk quality is satisfactory or not. If milk is free from warning signs, milking of the healthy udder can carried out for human consumption. To milk the cow clean, dry hand must be used and the whole hand should be used instead of only thumb and forefinger because the latter grip is considered bad for udder health and flow rate (Bonnier et al, 2004). Equipment used during milking As soon as milk comes out from the udder it gets into contact with the surface of the recipient vessel for example bucket/pail or aluminium can. Surfaces are usually metal, stainless steel, tinned steel or plastic and they should all be kept in good hygienic conditions. Nowadays Stainless Steel is used as the material of construction for Dairy and Food processing equipments world over to achieve the most exact requirements for easy maintenance, sanitation, product preservation, corrosion resistance and to avoid health hazardous effects of aluminium and plastic (http://www.busiverse.com/dairyproducts). The design of milking equipment, where used, and cans, should ensure there are no crevices or recesses that can interfere with proper cleaning (CAC, 2004). Chapter 3: Methodology Data collection Data collection was done by carrying out a questionnaire based survey. The questionnaire assessed the various sanitary practices and perceptions on the dairy farms. Desk study of recent reports on cattle breeding sector was also conducted to get relevant information on the topic. Moreover key informants like the Agricultural Research Extension Unit situated at St Pierre and the Veterinary Service Division at Reduit were approached. An appointment was fixed through contacts by email and phone call. After interviewing the concerned party, an idea of the current situation as concerned the cattle breeding of the livestock sector was obtained. The names, contact numbers and addresses of the dairy cattle breeders around the island were obtained. Statistical data was obtained from the government website of central statistic division. Questionnaire design The study was based on questionnaire survey among the dairy cattle breeders. While designing the questionnaire, the data collected was considered. The survey covered both management practices used on the farm and it was also composed of questions regarding beliefs and opinions about selected dairy breeding farm issues. The questionnaire consisted of different parts namely the sanitary condition of the cowshed, Pre-milking practices, post milking practices, and animal health. The types of questions used were mainly close ended type and only a few open ended. Sample size The sampling population was the dairy cattle breeders in Mauritius. It is obvious that the whole population cannot be surveyed, thus a total of 26 breeders were randomly selected using random numbers from a sampling frame that included addresses of all dairy cattle breeders registered by AREU. The her

Hplc Analysis Of Aloe Vera Tablets Biology Essay

Hplc Analysis Of Aloe Vera Tablets Biology Essay The project work was aimed to achieve the quantitative determination of aloin and aloe emodin in the form of tablets by employing HPLC. The method used was reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography. Calibration curve method was used for the quantification of aloin and aloe emodin. The mobile phase was the mixture of acetonitrile and deionised water in the ratio of 60:40 respectively. The mobile phase was pumped at 1.5 ml/minute and the analyte was quantified at the wavelength of 220 and 296nm. The column used for separation was kromasil 5C18. Reverse phase Isocratic run of standard aloin and standard aloe emodin was done and the peaks obtained from their analysis were used to compare the test sample peaks. Aloe vera colax tablets manufactured by Aloe pura laboratories were used as the test sample tablets which were extracted with water, methanol, acetonitrile, methanol-water and acetonitrile-water. After extraction they were subjected for isocratic run in HPLC instrument a nd the data obtained were compared with that of the standard. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction to Aloe Vera Aloes is the dried juice of the leaves of Aloe barbadensis Miller, known as Curacao aloes, or of Aloe perryi Baker known as Socotrine aloes, or of Aloe ferox Miller and hybrids of the species of Aloe africana Miller and Aloe spicata Baker, known as Cape aloes belonging to the family Liliaceae. [2,3] The synonym of aloes is Aalwee, Aalwyn, Kumari, Star cactus, Aroe, Acibar, Babosa, etc. [1] Aloes is indigeneous to eastern and southern Africa and grown in Cape colony, Zanzibar and islands of Socotra. It is also cultivated in Caribbean islands, Europe and many parts of India, including North West Himalayan region. [2] All the varieties of aloe are the major sources of anthraquinone glycosides. The principal active composition of aloe is aloin, which is a mixture of glucosides, among which barbaloin is the chief constituent. It is chemically aloe-emodin anthrone C-10 glucoside and is water-soluble. [2] Barbaloin is a C- glycoside and it is not hydrolysed by heating with dilute acids or alkalies. Ferric chloride decomposes barbaloin by oxidative hydrolysis into aloe-emodin-anthrone, little aloe-emodin and glucose. [2] Along with barbaloin, aloes also contains isobarbaloin, b-barbaloin, aloe-emodin and resins. The drug also contains aloetic acid, homonataloin, aloesone, chrysophanic acid, chrysamminic acid, galactouronic acid, choline, choline salicylate, saponins, mucopolysaccharides, glucosamines, hexuronic acid, coniferyl alcohol, etc. [2] The amount of barbaloin in different commercial varieties varies to a large extent. Curacao aloes contain about 22 percent of barbaloin. Indian variety, generally Aloe vera contain very less quantity (3.5 to 4 percent). Curacao aloes contains two and half times quantity of aloe-emodin , compared to Cape-aloe-emodin. [2] The resin of aloe principally contains Aloesin. It is a type of C- glucosyl chromome. Aloesin is also responsible for purgative action of aloes. [2] Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Aloin [5] Aloe emodin [6] 1.2 Uses of Aloe Vera: Aloes is used as purgative. Its effect is mainly on colon. It has a stronger purgative action in the series of all crude drugs with anthracene glycosidal content. To counter effect the gripping action, it is given along with carminatives. [2] It facilitates the healing of any kind of skin wound, burn, or scald even speeding recovery time after surgery. [4] It is applied topically in acne, sunburn, frostbite (it appears to prevent decreased blood flow), shingles, screening out x-ray radiation, psoriasis, preventing scarring, rosacea, warts, wrinkles from aging, and eczema. [2, 4] It also seems to help prevent opportunistic infections in cases of HIV and AIDS due to its immune system stimulant properties. [4] It appears to be of help in cancer patients (including lung cancer) by cativating white blood cells and promoting growth of non- cancerous cells. [4] Aloe also appears to work on heartburn, arthritis, and rheumatism pain and asthma. [2, 4] It also lowers the blood sugar levels in diabetics. [2, 4] Other situations in which it appears to work when taken internally inclue congestion, internal worms, indigestion, stomach ulcers, colitis, hemorrhoids, liver problems such as cirrhosis and hepatitis, kidney infections, urinary tract infections, prostate problems, and as a general detoxifier. [2, 4] CHAPTER 2 HPLC 2.1 HPLC: Introduction and Instrumentation The technique of high performance liquid chromatography is so called because of its improved performance when compared to classical column chromatography. It is also called as high-pressure liquid chromatography since pressure is used when compared to classical column chromatography. Instead of a solvent being allowed to drip through a column under gravity, it is forced through under high pressure of up to 400 atmospheres. For the separation, identification and quantification of compounds, this method is frequently used in biochemistry and analytical chemistry. [11, 12] The development of HPLC from classical column chromatography can be attributed to the development of smaller particle sizes. Smaller particle size is important since they offer more surface area over the conventional larger sizes. [7] 1960s 40 to 60m 1970s 10 to 20m 1980s 5 to 10m 1990s 1 to 3m A porous particle of 5m offers a surface area of 100-860 sq.metres/gram with an average of 400 sq.metres/gram. These offer very high plate counts upto 100,000/metre. Table 1: Comparison of classical column chromatography with HPLC [7] Parameter Classical column chromatography HPLC Stationary phase particle size Large 60-200m Small 3-20m Column size Length x int. diameter Large 0.5-5m x 0.5-5cm i.d. Small 5-50cm x 1-10mm i.d. Column material Glass Mostly metal Column packing pressure Slurry packed at low pressure often gravity Slurry packed at high pressure >5000 psi Operating pressure Low ( High (500 3000 psi) Flow rates Low to very low Medium to high (Often >3ml/min) Sample load Low to medium (g/mg) Low to very low (mg) Parameter Classical column chromatography HPLC Cost Low High Detector flow cell volume Large 300 to 1000ml Low 2 to 10ml Column efficiency i.e. Resolving power (Low) Theoretical plates per meter (High) often >100,000 Plates per meter Types of stationary phases available Limited range Wide range Scale of operation Preparative scale Analytical and preparative scale 2.2 Types of HPLC techniques [7, 9, 10, 11, 12] Based on Modes of Chromatography There are two modes viz. Normal phase mode and Reverse phase mode. These modes are based on the polarity of stationary phase and mobile phase. Before explaining the modes, it is important to know the interactions, which occur between solute, stationary and mobile phase. Polar Polar interaction or affinity is more Nonpolar Nonpolar interaction or affinity is more Polar Nonpolar interaction or affinity is less Normal phase mode: In normal phase mode, the stationary phase (eg. Silica gel) is polar in nature and the mobile phase is non-polar. In this technique, non-polar compounds travel faster and are eluted first. This is because of less affinity between solute and stationary phase. Polar compounds are retained for longer time in the column because of more affinity towards stationary phase and take more time to be eluted from the column. This is not advantageous in pharmaceutical applications since most of the drug molecules are polar in nature and takes longer time to be eluted and detected. Hence this technique is not widely used in pharmacy. Reverse phase mode: In reverse phase technique, a non-polar stationary phase is used. The mobile phase is polar in nature. Hence polar components get eluted first and non-polar compounds are retained for a longer time. Since most of the drugs and pharmaceuticals are polar in nature, they are not retained for a longer time and eluted faster, which is advantageous. Different columns used are ODS (Octadecyl silane) or C18, C8, C4, etc. Common reverse phase solvents are methanol, acetonitrile, tetrahydrofuran and water. Based on principle of separation Adsorption chromatography Ion exchange chromatography Ion pair chromatography Size exclusion or Gel permeation chromatography Affinity chromatography Chiral phase chromatography Each of the above technique is described in brief as follows: Adsorption chromatography: The principle of separation is adsorption. Separation of components takes place because of the difference in affinity of compounds towards stationary phase. This principle is seen in normal phase as well as reverse phase mode, where adsorption takes place. Ion exchange chromatography: The principle of separation is ion exchange, which is reversible exchange of functional groups. In ion exchange chromatography, an ion exchange resin is used to separate a mixture of similar charged ions. For cations, a cation exchange resin is used. For anions, an anion exchange resin is used. Ion pair chromatography: In ion pair chromatography, a reverse phase column is converted temporarily into ion exchange column by using ion pairing agents like pentane or hexane or heptane or octane sulphonic acid sodium salt, trtramethyl or tetraethyl ammonium hydroxide, etc. Size exclusion or gel permeation chromatography: In this type of chromatography, a mixture of components with different molecular sizes is separated by using gels. The gel used acts as molecular sieve and hence a mixture of substances with different molecular sizes is separated. Soft gels like agarose , dextran or polyacrylamide are used. Semi rigid gels like polystyrene, alkyl dextran in non-aqueous medium are also used. The mechanism of separation is by steric and diffusion effects. Affinity chromatography: Affinity chromatography uses the affinity of the sample with specific stationary phases. This technique is mostly used in the field of Biotechnology, Microbiology, Biochemistry, etc. Chiral phase chromatography: Separation of optical isomers can be done by using chiral stationary phases. Different principles operate for different types of stationary phases and for different samples. The stationary phases used for this type of chromatography are mostly chemically bonded silica gel. Based on elution technique 1. Isocratic separation: In this technique, the same mobile phase combination is used throughout the process of separation. The same polarity or elution strength is maintained throughout the process. In this technique, the peak width increases with retention time linearly according to the equation for N, the number of theoretical plates. Gradient separation: In this technique, a mobile phase combination of lower polarity or elution strength is used followed by gradually increasing the polarity or elution strength. One example is a gradient starting at 10% acetonitrile and ending at 90% acetonitrile after 25 minutes. The two components of the mobile phase are termed as A and B. Where A is the weak solvent and B is the strong solvent. Weak solvent allows the solute to elute slowly while strong solvent rapidly elutes the solutes from the column. A is usually water where as B is an organic solvent which is miscible with water such as acetonitrile, methanol, THF or isopropanol. Based on scale of operation 1. Analytical HPLC: Where only analysis of the samples are done. Recovery of the samples for reusing is normally not done, since the sample used is low. Eg. mg quantities. 2. Preparative HPLC: Where the individual fractions of pure compounds can be collected using fraction collector. The collected samples are reused eg. Separation of few grams of mixtures by HPLC. Based on type on analysis 1. Qualitative analysis: Which is used to identify the compound, detect the presence of impurities, to find out the number of components, etc. This is done by using retention time values. 2. Quantitative analysis: Which is done to determine the quantity of the individual or several components in a mixture. This is done by comparing the peak area of the standard and sample. 2.3 Principle of separation in HPLC: [7, 9] The principle of separation in normal phase and reverse phase mode is adsorption. When a mixture of components is introduced in to a HPLC column, they travel according to their relative affinities towards the stationary phase. The component, which has more affinity towards the adsorbant, travels slower. The component, which has less affinity towards the stationary phase, travels faster. Since no two components have the same affinity towards the stationary phase, the components are separated. 2.4 Instrumental Requirements [7, 9, 10, 12] Pumps solvent delivery system Mixing unit, gradient controller and solvent degassing Injector Manual or auto injectors Guard columns Detectors Recorders and integrators Fig. 3 The schematic diagram of HPLC [13] 1. Pump Solvent delivery system The solvents or mobile phases used must be passed through the column at high pressure at about 1000 to 3000 psi. This is because as the particle size of stationary phase is few m (5 10m), the resistance to the flow of solvent is high. Hence such high pressure is recommended. There are different types of pumps available. They are mechanical pumps and pneumatic pumps. A mechanical pump operates with constant flow rate and uses a sapphire piston. This type of pump is used in analytical scale. Pneumatic pumps operate with constant pressure and use highly compressed gas. The solvents used must be of high purity, preferably HPLC grade and filtered through 0.45m filter. Check valves: These are present to control the flow rate of solvent and back pressure. Pulse dampners: These are used to dampen the pulses observed from the wavy baseline caused by the pumps. 2. Mixing unit, gradient controller and solvent degassing Mixing unit is used to mix solvents in different proportions and pass through the column. There are two types of mixing units. They are low pressure mixing chamber, which uses helium for degassing solvents. High pressure mixing chamber does not require helium for degassing solvents. Mixing of solvents is done either with a static mixer, which is packed with beads, or dynamic mixer, which uses magnetic stirrer and operates under high pressure. Gradient controller In an isocratic separation, mobile phase is prepared by using pure solvent or mixture of solvents, i.e. solvent of same eluting power or polarity is used. But in gradient elution technique, the polarity of the solvent is gradually increased and hence the solvent composition has to be changed. Hence a gradient controller is used when two or more solvent pumps are used for such separations. Solvent degassing Several gases are soluble in organic solvents. When solvents are pumped under high pressure, gas bubbles are formed which will interfere with the separation process, steady baseline and the shape of the peak. Hence degassing of the solvent is important. This can be done by using any one of the following technique. Vacuum filtration which can remove all air bubbles. But it is not always reliable and complete. Helium purging i.e. by passing helium through the solvent. This is very effective but helium is expensive. Ultrasonication by using ultrasonicator, which converts ultra high frequency to mechanical vibrations. This causes the removal of air bubbles. 3. Injector Manual or auto injectors Several devices are available either for manual or auto injection of the sample. Different devices are: Septum injectors for injecting the sample through a rubber septum. This is not common, since the septum has to withstand high pressure. Stop flow (on line) in which the flow of mobile phase is stopped for a while and the sample is injected through a valve device. Rheodyne injector (Loop valve type) It is the most popular injector. This has a fixed volume loop like 20ml or 50ml or more. Injector has two modes, i.e. load position when the sample is loaded in the loop and inject mode, when the sample is injected. 4. Guard column Guard column has very small quantity of adsorbent and improves the life of the analytical column. It also acts as a prefilter to remove particulate matter, if any, and other material. Guard column has the same material as that of analytical column. Guard column does not contribute to any separation. 5. Analytical columns Analytical column is the most important part of HPLC technique, which decides the efficiency of separation. There are several stationary phases available depending upon the technique or mode of separation used. Column material: The columns are made up of stainless steel, glass, polyethylene and PEEK (Poly ether ether ketone). Most widely used are stainless steel, which can withstand high pressure. Latest ones are PEEK columns. Column length: Varies from 5cm to 30cm Column diameter: Ranges from 2mm to 50mm Particle size: From 1m to 20m Particle nature: Spherical, uniform sized, porous materials are used. Surface area: 1 gram of stationary phase provides surface area ranging from 100 860 sq.m with an average of 400 sq.m. Functional group: the functional group present in stationary phase depends on the type of chromatographic separation. In normal phase mode it contains the silanol groups (hydroxy group). In reverse phase mode it contains the following groups: C18 Octa Decyl Silane (ODS) column C8 Octyl column C4 Butyl column CN Nitrile column NH2 Amino column For other modes of chromatography, ion exchange columns, gel columns, chiral columns, affinity chromatographic columns, etc. are available. 6. Detectors [7,9,10] Detectors used depend upon the property of the compounds to be separated. Different detectors available are UV detector: This detector is based upon the light absorption characteristics of the sample. Two types of this detector are available. One is the fixed wavelength detector, which operates at 254nm where most drug compounds absorb. The other is the variable wavelength detector, which can be operated from 190nm to 600nm. Refractive index detector: This is a non-specific or universal detector. This is not much used for analytical applications because of low sensitivity and specificity. Flourimetric detector: This detector is based on the fluorescent radiation emitted by some class of compounds. The exitation wavelength and emission wavelength can be selected for each compound. This detector has more specificity and sensitivity. The disadvantage is that some compounds are not fluorescent. Conductivity detector: Based upon electrical conductivity, the response is recorded. This detector is used when the sample has conducting ions like anions and cations. Amperometric detector: This detector is based on the reduction or oxidation of the compounds when a potential is applied. The diffusion current recorded is proportional to the concentration of the compound eluted. This is applicable when compounds have functional groups, which can be either oxidised or reduced. This is a highly sensitive detector. Photodiode array detector (PDA detector): This is a recent one, which is similar to UV detector, which operates from 190 600nm. Radiations of all wavelengths fall on the detector simultaneously. The resulting spectrum is a 3-D or three-dimensional plot of Response Vs Time Vs Wavelength. The advantage is that the wavelength need not be selected, but the detector detects the responses of all the compounds. 7. Recorders and integrators Recorders: They are used to record the responses obtained from detectors after amplification, if necessary. They record the baseline and all the peaks obtained, with respect to time. Retention time for all the peaks can be found out from such recordings, but the area of individual peaks cannot be known. Integrators: Integrators are improved version of recorders with some data processing capabilities. They can record the individual peaks with retention time, height, and width of peaks, peak area, percentage of area, etc. Integrators provide more information on peaks than recorders. Now a days computers and printers are used for recording and processing the obtained data and for controlling several operations. 2.5 Parameters used in HPLC [7, 9, 10] Retention time (Rt): Retention time is the difference in the time between the point of injection and appearance of peak maxima. Retention time is the time required for 50% of a component to be eluted from a column. Retention time is measured in minutes or seconds. Retention time is also proportional to the distance moved on a chart paper, which can be measured in cm or mm. Retention volume (Vr): Retention volume is the volume of mobile phase required to elute 50% of the component from the column. It is the product of retention time and flow rate. Retention volume = Retention time x flow rate Separation factor (S): Separation factor is the ratio of partition co-efficient of the two components to be separated. It can be expressed and determined by using the following equation: S = Kb/ Ka = Ka/ Kb = (tb t0)/ (ta t0) Where, t0 = Retention time of unretained substance Kb, Ka= Partition coefficients of b and a tb, ta = Retention time of substance b and a S = depends on liquid phase, column temperature If there is more difference in partition coefficient between two compounds, the peaks are far apart and the separation factor is more. If the partition coefficients of two compounds are similar, then the peaks are closer and the separation factor is less. Resolution: Resolution is a measure of the extent of separation of two components and the baseline separation achieved. It can be determined by using the following formula: Rs = 2 (Rt1 Rt2)/ (W1 +W2) Theoretical plate (Plate theory): A theoretical plate is an imaginary or hypothetical unit of a column where distribution of solute between stationary phase and mobile phase has attained equilibrium. A theoretical plate can also be called as a functional unit of the column. HETP Height Equivalent to a Theoritical Plate [18, 7] A theoretical plate can be of any height, which decides the efficiency of separation. If HETP is less, the column is more efficient. If HETP is more, the column is less efficient. HETP can be calculated by using the following formula: HETP = length of the column/ number of theoretical plates HETP is given by Van Deemter equation HETP = A + (B/u ) + Cu Where, A = Eddy diffusion term or multiple path diffusion which arises due to packing of the column. This is unaffected by mobile phase velocity or flow rate. This can be minimised by uniformity in packing. B = Longitudinal diffusion term or molecular diffusion which depends on flow rate. C = Effect of mass transfer which depends on flow rate. u = Flow rate or velocity of the mobile phase. A column is efficient only when HETP is minimum. Hence an ideal flow rate corresponding to the minimum value of HETP is used. Efficiency (No. of theoretical plates): The number of theoretical plates expresses efficiency of a column. It can be determined by using the formula: n = 16 Rt ²/w ² Where, n = no. of theoretical plates Rt = retention time w = peak width at base Rt and w are measured in common units (mm or cm or minutes or seconds) and are proportional to the distances marked on chart paper. If the number of theoretical plates is high, the column is said to be highly efficient. If the number of theoretical plates is low, the column is said to be less efficient. For gas chromatographic columns, a value of 600/ metre is sufficient. But in HPLC, high values like 40,000 to 70,000/ metre are recommended. Asymmetry factor: A chromatographic peak should be symmetrical about its centre and said to follow Gaussian distribution. In such cases, the peak will be like an isosceles triangle. But in practice, due to some factors, the peak is not symmetrical and shows tailing or fronting. Fronting is due to saturation of stationary phase and can be avoided by using less quantity of sample. Tailing is due to more active adsorption sites and can be eliminated by support pre-treatment, more polar mobile phased increasing the amount of liquid phase. Asymmetry factor (0.95 to 1.05) can be calculated by using the formula: AF = b/a (b and a calculated at 5% or 10% of the peak height) 2.6 Applications of HPLC HPLC is being more widely used in several fields. Apart from its use in Pharmaceutical field, it is used in Chemical and Petrochemical industry, Environmental applications, Forensic applications, Biochemical separations, Biotechnology, Food analysis, etc. In fact there is no field where HPLC is not being used. It is a versatile and sensitive technique, which can be used in several ways. Some of them are listed below: Qualitative analysis: It is nothing but identification of compound. This is done by comparing the retention time of the sample as well as the standard. Under identical conditions, the retention time of the standard and the sample are same. If there is a deviation, then they are not the same compound. Checking the purity of the compound: By comparing the chromatogram of the standard and that of the sample, the purity of the compound can be inferred. If additional peaks are obtained, impurities are present and hence the compound is not pure. From the percentage area of the peaks obtained, the percentage purity can also be known. Presence of impurities: This can be seen by the presence of additional peaks when compared with a reference standard or reference material. The percentage of impurities may also be calculated from peak areas. Quantitative analysis: The quantity of a component can be determined by several methods like a. Direct comparison method By injecting a sample and standard separately and comparing their peak areas, the quantity of the sample can be determined. Area of the peak = peak height x width of peak at the half height A1/ A2 = a (W1/ W2) Where, A1 and A2 are peak area of sample and standard W1 and W2 are weight or concentration of sample and standard a is the response factor b. Calibration curve method: In calibration curve method, series of standards are used to determine their peak areas. A calibration curve of peak area Vs concentration of the drug is plotted. From the peak area of the unknown sample, by intrapolation, the concentration of the sample can be determined. This method has the advantage that errors, if any, are minimised. Internal standard method: In this method, a compound with similar retention characteristics is used. A known concentration of the internal standard is added to the sample solution whose concentration is not known. The chromatogram is recorded and their peak areas are determined. By using formula, the concentration of unknown solution is determined. Multicomponent analysis or Determination of mixture of drugs: Similar to the quantification of a single drug, multicomponent analysis can be done easily. The quantity of each component is determined by using any one of the above methods. Marketed formulations, which contain several drugs, can be determined quantitatively for each component. Isolation and identification of drugs or metabolites in urine, plasma, serum, etc. can be carried out. Isolation and identification of mixture of components of natural or synthetic origin. Biopharmaceutical and Pharmacokinetic studies. Stability studies. Purification of some compounds of natural or synthetic origin on preparative scale. 2.7 Limitations: [7, 10] The limitations of HPLC are that drugs have to be extracted from their formulations prior to analysis and large amounts of organic solvent waste are generated which are expensive to dispose off. CHAPTER 3 Experimental Selection 3.1 Aim of Project: The aim of this project was to carry out the quantitative determination of the active pharmaceutical ingredient aloin and aloe-emodin in the given Aloe Vera Colax tablets, manufactured by Aloe Pura laboratories and to compare the results with the given standard aloin and aloe-emodin. The technique used for analysis was reverse phase High Performance Liquid Chromatography method. The analysis was performed using standard calibration curve generated at 220 and 296nm wavelength. 3.2 Chromatographic equipment and conditions: All the chromatographic equipments and conditions, which were used to perform HPLC in a laboratory environment under simulated GLP compliance conditions, are listed below. 3.2.1 HPLC system 5 (used for isocratic elution): This system is manufactured by Agilent technologies 1200 series, whose model number is G1310A and the serial number is DE 62956545 3.2.2 Software used: The software used was Microsoft windows XP, Pentium D whose product number is G 2175 BA, revision code is B. 03. 01 and its registration number is CL1CE8DB0F 3.2.3 Column used: The column used was Kromasil 5C18 whose test number is 9203- 10344 3.2.4 Pipette used: The pipette used was Volac ultra (made in U.K.), S. No. 29186, Model: R680/ F, 0-1000 mL and Volac ultra (made in U.K.), S.No. 29185, Model: R680/ F, 500-5000 mL. 3.2.5 Analytical Balance: Mettler balance AC 88 was used to weigh the sample drug whose Biom